Critical minerals such as cobalt, lithium, nickel, and rare earth elements are essential to the economy of the 21st century. They are the driving force behind electric vehicles, wind turbines, solar panels, and hydrogen fuel cells.
Without these resources, the global transition to sustainable energy would come to a halt. However, beneath the surface of promises for green growth lies a harsh geopolitical truth: the control of these vital resources is increasingly held by a single nation-China. This grow-ing influence of Beijing is particularly evident in Africa.
Currently, China is responsible for 60 percent of the world’s production and 85 percent of the pro-cessing capacity for critical minerals.
This level of dominance did not happen by chance. Since the 1980s, Beijing has strategically developed its rare earth industry through subsidies, low-interest loans, and lax environmental regulations, effectively undermining Western competitors who face stricter rules and higher expenses. As the demand for these minerals continues to rise, China has shifted its focus to Africa, a continent abundant in resources, from cobalt in the Democratic Repub-lic of Congo (DRC) to lithium in Zimbabwe and Namibia.
Recent reports from 2023 and 2024 indicate that Chinese firms have invested nearly $8 billion in mining projects across Africa, including lithium processing facilities in Mali and Zimbabwe, as well as expanded operations in South Africa, Zambia, Guinea, Angola, and Nigeria.3 In Malawi, Beijing secured a $7 billion deal for titanium mining, while in Madagascar, Chinese companies col-laborated with Singapore-listed ISR Capital on a rare earths initiative.
These activities are not mere coincidences instead they reflect a calculated effort to secure Africa’s mineral resources.
One of the most potent strategies employed by China has been the ‘infrastructure-for-resources’ model, where Beijing constructs roads, railways, or hospitals in exchange for long-term mining rights. A prime example of this is the Sicomines deal in the DRC, which granted Chinese compa-nies access to cobalt and copper reserves in return for infrastructure development.
Joint ventures and acquisitions further solidify this influence: China’s Zijin Mining Group collaborated with Congo’s state-owned Cominiere, while Shenghe Resources took over a portion of Tanzania’s Ngualla rare earth project.
Financing is equally vital. From 2000 to 2018, Chinese loans to African governments and state-owned enterprises reached $152 billion, with Angola receiving nearly 30 percent of that total.
Countries rich in minerals, like Zambia and the DRC, received $14 billion, much of which was di-rectly linked to resource extraction. Unlike loans from the IMF or World Bank, Chinese financing imposes fewer conditions regarding governance or transparency. This is appealing to African lead-ers in the short term but poses risks to long-term sovereignty.
China’s engagement flourishes in regions where governance is lacking. In Congo, leaked docu-ments from ‘The Sentry’ disclosed how the shell company Congo Construction Company funneled $55 million through intermediaries to bribe officials in a multibillion-dollar mining agreement. This deal, intended to finance essential infrastructure, instead enriched the elite while the average Congo-lese citizen reaped little benefit.
Namibia presents yet another cautionary example. Xinfeng Investments, a firm owned by Chinese interests, is accused of acquiring it’s Uis lithium mine through corrupt practices, utilizing permits meant for small-scale miners. Reports suggest that it evaded environmental assessments, bribed local leaders, and subjected workers to conditions reminiscent of apartheid. Instead of contributing to local development, the company exported thousands of tonnes of raw lithium ore to China, un-dermining Namibia’s efforts for local processing.
In Zimbabwe, the lithium rush at the Sandawana mine quickly descended into chaos. Thousands of artisanal miners operated in perilous conditions, with alarming reports of child labor and mine col-lapses. By 2023, the government had expelled these miners and transferred control to companies linked to the ruling ZANU-PF party and the military, some of which are under Western sanctions. Despite an official ban on unprocessed lithium exports, firms with political connections were per-mitted to transport raw ore out of the country.
The environmental repercussions of China’s mining activities are profound. A 2023 report from the Business and Human Rights Resource Centre highlighted extensive breaches of environmental regulations by Chinese firms in Africa’s mining industry. Communities have endured land degra-dation, contaminated water sources, and a loss of biodiversity.
Labor practices raise similar concerns. In Zambia, regulators faced allegations of accepting bribes to ignore labor violations by Chinese companies.
In South Africa, Chinese firms have encoun-tered strikes and protests over inadequate wages, unsafe working conditions, and racial discrimina-tion. The anticipated job creation often fails to materialize as Chinese companies bring in their own workforce, leaving local Africans marginalized.
Numerous African nations are currently grappling with debt distress, exacerbated by resource loans backed by China. Unable to meet repayment obligations, these countries face the peril of compromising their sovereignty. Allegations of illegal mining are rampant. In Nigeria, for instance, authorities took action against Ruitai Mining Company for engaging in illicit titanium ore opera-tions in 2023.
Reports from other nations even indicate potential connections between illegal min-ing activities and the financing of militant groups.
Some governments are starting to push back. Zimbabwe and Namibia have implemented bans on the export of unprocessed lithium, with the intention of compelling investors to establish domestic processing facilities. Nigeria has also halted specific Chinese mining operations. However, the en-forcement of these measures is inconsistent, particularly in regions where political elites benefit from opaque agreements with Beijing.
China’s stronghold over Africa’s mineral sector transcends the continent, it poses a global dilem-ma. By monopolizing both extraction and refining processes, Beijing has achieved a level of verti-cal integration that grants it significant influence. In the cobalt market, Chinese companies dominate mines in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and refining operations across the globe.
A simi-lar trend is emerging in the lithium sector. This control enables Beijing to dictate global pricing and supply chains.
The geopolitical implications are evident. In 2010, during a diplomatic spat, China curtailed rare earth exports to Japan. Experts caution that it could employ the same strategy again, potentially dis-rupting the supply of essential minerals to Western nations.
Meanwhile, Africa risks remaining entrenched in the role of a raw material exporter, missing out on opportunities for industrialization. The West, in turn, becomes perilously reliant on a single source for its critical mineral needs.
Africa must harness its mineral resources, but not under exploitative conditions. The continent can-not afford to repeat the patterns of extraction seen during the colonial era without meaningful trans-formation. Leaders must implement environmental protections, demand local processing, and en-sure that mining agreements truly benefit the populace.
Western nations also share in this responsibility. After years of overlooking Africa’s resource po-tential, they must now provide credible alternatives-such as investments in processing facilities, transparent financing, and partnerships that prioritize the development of Africa.
China’s increasing influence in Africa’s vital minerals is not just an economic issue; it poses geo-political, environmental, and ethical challenges. If African nations do not assert their control and the global community fails to offer fairer alternatives, the continent risks falling into yet another cycle of exploitation.
As the world accelerates towards decarbonization, Africa finds itself at the center of the mineral landscape. The critical question is whether it will merely serve as a temporary stop in China’s sup-ply chain or rise as a genuine partner in shaping the future of clean energy.